Sex Ed By Anna Quindelen Essay - 840 Words

In her essay â€Å"Sex Ed†, Anna Quindelen, a New York Times Columnist, journalist, and novelist, describes why teens should be taught sexual education by family members and loved ones rather than by teachers (Quindelen 183). In the essay, the author states that girls know the anatomy of a female’s reproductive system, and can tell the beginning and end of the ovarian cycles but can still end up pregnant. Knowledge isn’t always the right way to getting a point across. Desensitizing teens to important information can often be the demise of what we are trying to teach. The author also states that teenagers do not have a tendency to think ahead the future repercussions of sex, they are too focused on what is happening in the heat of the moment that they do not think about pregnancy, or are to uneducated about the subject to know to be cautious. By teaching ones own children there are no misconceptions about what the parent wants them to know, versus what someone el se wishes for them to know or to be taught. Teenagers also see virginity as a bad thing, often ostracized and ridiculed by their peers for staying abstinent unlike their sexually active friends. Sexual education, as stated by the author, needs to be taught at home rather than at school because most teenagers don’t care about the why’s or how’s of sexual education. Since it is a subject that must be taught objectively and emotionlessly as possible, like in economics most students with become either bored and not pay

Essay on Kafka and his Portrayal of Characters - 2820 Words

Kafka’s Portrayal of Characters Franz Kafka, born on July 3, 1883 in Bohemia, in the city of Prague, has been recognized as one of the greatest writers of the twentieth century. Virtually unknown during his lifetime, the works of Kafka have since been recognized as symbolizing modern mans distress and distorted alienation in an unintelligible, hostile, or indifferent world. None of Kafka’s novels were printed during his lifetime, and it was only with reluctance that he published a fraction of his shorter fiction. Kafka went even as far as to request that his unprinted manuscripts be destroyed after his death. His friend, Max Brod went against his wishes and published his works, although many were unfinished (Sokel 35). Kafka came from a†¦show more content†¦Samsa Sr. who had part in his son’s sudden change into an enormous bug, and Bendemann Sr. who was omnipotent and omniscient, sentences his son to death. In both works, the father-son relationship is described with bitterness. Kafka wrote his father a confession, lacerating letter over 15,000 words long (Flores and Swander 26) and sent it to his mother to give to his father, of which, his father never received. His relationship with Fraulein B. that lasted from 1913 to 1917, and his engagement to Julie Whoryzek, the daughter of a synagogue janitor, exacerbated problems with his father. His father was horrified by his engagement to a janitor’s daughter, and offended Kafka by saying he would have to sell the family store and emigrate to escape the shame to the family name by Kafka’s engagement. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In his three stories, â€Å"The Judgement,† â€Å"The Metamorphosis,† and â€Å"In the Penal Colony,† the son-figures are all guilty of original sin. The self-effacement of the son is shown: Georg Bendemann and Gregor Samsa have replaced the father as practical head and breadwinner of the family, and the condemned man on the prison-island has rebelled against military (paternal) authority (Anders 174). â€Å"The Judgement† emphasizes the son’s offense, the father’s anger, and the punishment that follows swiftly (180). In â€Å"The Metamorphosis† it is not referred to as anShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Franz Kafka s Life Essay1019 Words   |  5 Pagespsychiatry, and more so in some quarters than others. Simply put, Freud explores the unconscious mind. And although Kafka may not have meant for it to come across this way in his writing, his characters and the events that take place truly do reflect him. Knowing Fr anz Kafka’s life is a key to understand his writings for the events of his life are the clear origin of the neurotic tensions of his works. 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Financial Reporting Of Singapore Limited - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Financial ReportingOf Singapore Limited. Answer: Introduction The objective of the paper is to conduct a comparative analysis of the selected companies Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant that is listed in Singapore stock exchange. Moreover, a comparative summary for two years regarding the selected companies profitability, liquidity, asset efficiency and gearing will be provided within the report. Additionally, a reflective statement associated with the learning journey of the report will also be provided. Background of Companies Soup Restaurant is positioned as among the best niche restaurant in Chinatown that offers herbal soups and home cooked food at affordable costs (Almamy, Aston Ngwa, 2016). Sakae Holdings is a renowned restaurant that offers quality dining Sushi, crepes and cream and catering services. Both these companies are listed in Singapore Exchange Limited. Discussion Profitability Ratios Profitability Ratios Sakae Holdings Soup Restaurant Years 2015 2016 2015 2016 Gross margin 1.90730719 1.649828347 0.11875 0.12178 Change from previous year 9.00% 13.50% 1.50% -2.55% Net margin -0.14000665 -0.38 0.10 0.11 Change from previous year 65% 97.28% -0.10 -11.56% Return on capital employed -0.43135246 -1.21 0.15 0.15 Change from previous year -150% -180% 14.68% 15.12% Return on Equity -0.10311964 -0.372904226 0.09 0.11 Change from previous year 86% 96% 9.40% 10.98% Return on Total Assets -0.04182283 0 0.09 0.11 Change from previous year 97% 108% 9% 11% Gross Margin Gross margin ratio is important in measuring how much efficient will be the companies in their business operations. Gross margin ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed to decrease by 13.50% in the year 2016 in comparison to Soup Restaurant Company that is observed to increase from the year 2015 to year 2016 by 2.55% (Altman et al.2017). Such increasing trend of this ratio indicates that the company retains increased amount on every dollar of its sales in order to service its debt obligations along with other costs. Sakae Holdings decreasing percentage indicates a decrease in competitiveness of the companys services and products (Sakae Holdings, 2018). It also signifies overall profitability of the company is getting poor each year with decreased sales of its products. Net Margin Net margin ratio is important in indicating profitability of a company. Net margin ratio of Sakae Holdings Company is observed to decrease by 97% from the year 2015 to year 2016 (Kou, Peng Wang, 2014). Such decrease is observed because of the reason that financial health of the company is poor than Soup Restaurant Company and this signifies the company is proficient enough in transforming its revenue into profits which is further available for all its shareholders. It can also be gathered from the results of the company that it has less parentage of revenue left after all expenses are decreased from the sales and it is extracting less amount of profit after its total sales. Net margin ratio of Soup Restaurant Company is observed to increase by 11.56% from the year 2015 to year 2016. This indicates that the company is efficient enough in converting its revenue into profits. This also signifies the business performance of the company is not that effective in facilitating it to attain enough net margins. Return on Capital Employed Return on capital employed is important in analysing the ways in which a company employs its assets in attaining high revenues. Return on capital employed ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed to decrease by 15% from the year 2015 to year 2016. However, and Soup Restaurant Company has constant ROCE in both 2015 and 2016. Such results indicate that companys performance within the capital intensive sectors like the restaurants. This does not offer a good indication regarding these companies financial performance of the significant debt (Sakae Holdings, 2018). Moreover, such decreasing and fixed trend of return of capital employed makes it clear that these companies might occasionally have an inordinate cash amount in hand but as the cash is not actively used within the business. There are some limitations in using this ratio as it considers that the companies require increasing this ratio for the reason that the investors are likely to favour the organizations with stable and increasing return on capital employed ratio. Return on Equity Return in equity facilitates in analysing the companys capability in attaining profit for every dollar invested by shareholders. Return on equity of Sakae is observed to decrease over the years from 2015 to 2016, while the situation is just the opposite for Soup. This is because of the reason that Sakae Holdings is not that capable in attaining increased profit for every dollar of common shareholders equity (Sakae Holdings, 2018). Return on Total Assets Return on total assets of both the companies is observed to decrease for Sakae and increase for Soup Restaurant over the years from 2015 to 2016. This is because of the reason that Sakae Company is highly capable to attain increased profit percentage in comparison to its overall resources that is not same in case of Soup Restaurant because of which it is attaining less profit (Sakae Holdings, 2018). Liquidity Ratios Liquidity Ratios Sakae Holdings Soup Restaurant Years 2015 2016 2015 2016 Current ratio 1 0.43 2.45 2.02 Change from previous year 31.00% 33.42% 15% 17.36% Quick ratio 0.586722962 0.39 2.41 1.99 Change from previous year 58.67% 39.01% 15% -17% Current Ratio Current ratio is important in analysing the companys current total assets in consideration to its current total liabilities. Current ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed it decrease by 33.42% from the year 2015 in the year 2016. Moreover, current ratio for Soup Restaurant is observed to decrease by 17.36% from the year 2015 in the year 2016 (Bansal, 2014). Decreasing trend of this ratio for Sakae Holdings Company indicates that the company is losing its capability to address both its short and long term obligations. It can also be observed in case of the company that its liabilities are increasing in comparison to its assets that make it incapable to address all its debt obligations. It also signifies that Soup Restaurant Company has better liquidity position than Sakae Holdings Company as the results indicate this organization is capable enough in settling its current liabilities with its current assets. There is a limitation in using this ratio as it considers analysing inventory th at can lead to overestimation of liquidity position of the companies. Quick Ratio Quick ratio is important in evaluating the liability of companies that measures the ways in which they address their short term financial liabilities. Quick ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed it decrease by 39.01% from the year 2015 in the year 2016 (Buehlmaier Whited, 2016). Such decreasing trend indicates that the company is not that efficient in maintaining its liquidity and address all its shot tem obligations with its most liquid assets. On the other hand, quick ratio for Soup Restaurant is observed to decrease by 17% from the year 2015 in the year 2016.This signifies that the company has increased accounts receivables that make it difficult for the organization in collecting its receivables (Collier, 2015). There is a limitation of this ratio as a decreasing quick ratio not always indicates that it has increased risk of bankrupts; it can signify the company is focussing greatly on inventory or over assets for paying off its short term liabilities. Asset Efficiency Ratios Efficiency Ratios Sakae Holdings Soup Restaurant Years 2015 2016 2015 2016 Average inventory 12 14 46 47 Change from previous year 11% 13% 2% 3% Asset turnover ratio 0.30 0.30 0.09 0.11 Change from previous year 0 0 15% 17% Receivables turnover (in days) 9 17 0 0.00 Change from previous year 85% 90% 0 0 Inventory turnover (in days) 12 14 3.06 3.48 Change from previous year 11% 13% 12% 14% Average Inventory Average inventory of both Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant Company is observed to increase from the year 2015 to year 2016 (Damodaran, 2016). This indicates that both the companies inventories are sold and replaced many times over a time period. This also signifies value of the inventory attained by these companies is increasing over the specific time and they are efficient enough in adjusting the values associated with inventory items from their previous purchase. Asset Turnover Ratios Asset turnover ratios of both Sakae Holdings has increased and Soup Restaurant is observed to increase from the year 2015 to year 2016 (Dokas, Giokas Tsamis, 2014). This indicates that these companies do not have enough capability in gathering enough sales from its assets through comparing net sales with its average total assets. This also signifies that these companies are not that capable enough in employing its assets for gathering enough sales. It can be observed from the results of the companies that these are not that efficient in measuring enough number of revenue dollars gathered by one dollar of the companys assets (Goldmann, 2017). The value of these companies sales and revenues gathered in comparison to its assets value is deemed to be lesser as signified by lower asset turnover ratio of these companies. Receivables Turnover Receivables turnover ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed to increase from the year 2015 in the year 2016. This indicates that the company is efficient enough in employing its assets that quantifies the companys efficiency in extending credit along with gathering debts on such credit (Grinblatt Titman, 2016). Receivables turnover ratio of Soup Restaurant is observed to increase from the year 2015 in the year 2016. Such result signifies that the company is highly capable in gathering its credit that is issued by the company to its consumers. Therefore, it can be stated that the credit practices of the company is proving beneficial for it (Grinblatt Titman, 2016). Inventory Turnover Inventory turnover ratio of Sakae Holdings is observed to decrease from the year 2015 to year 2016. However, the ratio for Soup Restaurant is expected to remain the same over the year due to greater market demand. Such results indicate that Soup Restaurant inventory is not replaced and sold over a period of time (Hotchkiss, Strmberg Smith, 2014). Soup Restaurant acquired larger inventory amounts over the past two years and were not capable enough to sell them in increased amounts in order to enhance their turnover. Payables Turnover It has been observed that the payables turnover of Soup has increased over the year, as it has been allowing extended credit terms to its debtors. However, the scenario is just the reverse for Sakae Holdings, since it has reduced its debtor terms for retaining greater cash in hand so that it could be invested in business operations. Gearing Ratios Investment Ratios Sakae Holdings Soup Restaurant Years 2015 2016 2015 2016 Earnings per share -32.6126761 -92.82 0.34 0.35 Change from previous year 170% 185% -2% -3% Interest cover ratio 5 15 7 16 Change from previous year 160% 168% 120% 125% Price earnings ratio -0.01165191 -0.003231925 0.4 0.47 Change from previous year -68% -72% 7% 18% Dividend cover ratio 0 0 0 0 Change from previous year 0 0 0 0 Dividend yield ratio 0 0 -15,300,379 -10,125,044 Change from previous year 0 0 -30% -34% Capital gearing ratio 33.97049924 26.34795764 0.21 0.03 Change from previous year -20% -22% -85% -87% Earnings per share Ratio This ratio is important in analysing an organizations overall earnings for its shares. This is also an indication of the fraction of an organizations financing which derives from investors and creditors (Kou, Peng Wang, 2014). Earnings per share ratio of Sakae Holdings are observed to decrease by 185% and 3% from the year 2015 to 2016. On the other hand, the earnings per share of Soup Restaurant are expected to increase by 3% in 2016. Such decrease in this ratio of Sakae Holdings indicates that Sakae Holdings is employing more debt in order to finance its assets in consideration to the shareholders equity value (Soup Restaurant, 2018). There is also certain limitation in using this ratio as an organization might have high discretion in deciding aspects those are unique and there is a scope of manipulation. Interest Cover Ratio This ratio is important as it focuses on determining how easily an organization can address their interest expenses on the outstanding debt. Interest cover ratio of Soup Restaurant is observed to increase from the year 2015 to 2016 (Goldmann, 2017). Such results indicated that the organization has the capability to make certain interest payments on its debt within a timely manner. On the other hand, the ratio for Sakae Holdings has decreased in the same year denoting its fall in capability to meet its interest expense with operating income. As this ratio is indicating a increasing trend which makes sure that Soup is making enough money in addressing all its interest payments. If this ratio keeps on increasing then it can be considered less risky that will never attain a high bank financing (Grinblatt Titman, 2016). However, there are certain limitations of employing this ratio as this ratio at times fails to provide a clear picture of the companys stability with regards to defaults a nd certain interest payments. This ratio keeps on fluctuating that questions the reliability of the results. Price earnings ratio Price earnings ratio has significance in evaluating the companys increased growth in future. Price earnings ratio of both Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant Company is observed to decrease by 72% and 18% from the year 2015 to year 2016. As these companies are losing money they are observed to have very less or no price earnings ratio. This indicates that for both the companies the investors are not willing to pay an increased amount per dollar of its earnings (Sakae Holdings, 2018). However, there are certain limitations of using this ratio as this employs estimated earnings in order to attain high price earnings ratio. Dividend cover ratio Dividend cover ratio is vital in analysing the number of times a company is able to pay dividends to all its shareholders that is gathered from profits earned within an accounting period. Dividend cover ratio of both Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant Company is observed to be 0 from the year 2015 to year 2016. This indicates that both the companies are capable enough in paying off all its necessary preferred dividend payments and it faces no difficulty in addressing preferred dividend requirements (Sakae Holdings, 2018). Some limitations of using this ratio includes proper estimation of deducting any dividends paid for the irredeemable preference shares from the net profit gathered over the accounting period for estimating earnings to be attained by ordinary shareholders. Dividend yield ratio Dividend yield ratio is significant in analysing the basis on which the organizations pay dividends on quarterly basis and evaluators the dividend paying capability of the organization. Dividend yield ratio of both Sakae Holdings and is observed to be 0 and Soup Restaurant Company is observed to decrease by 34% from the year 2015 to year 2016. This indicates that both the companies do not pay a huge percentage of market prices of their shares to all its shareholders in the dividend form (Soup Restaurant, 2018). However, there are certain limitations of employing this ratio as it estimates that a company used for analysis continuously prefer making dividend payments at the similar or increased rate like usual. Capital gearing ratio Capital gearing ratio is necessary in a companys capital structure that includes the fraction of equity and debt used by the company. Capital gearing ratio of both Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant Company is observed to decrease by 22% and 87% from the year 2015 to year 2016. This indicates that the capital structure of the company is not that low geared as a decreased fraction of their capital is encompassed of common stockholders equity (Soup Restaurant, 2018). Few drawbacks of employing thus ratio includes the complexity of this ratio in understanding whether the organization is high or low geared along with the performance of the organization in covering the interest payment with gathering a constant profit. Conclusion The objective of the paper is to conduct a comparative analysis of the selected companies Sakae Holdings and Soup Restaurant that is listed in Singapore stock exchange. The report revealed that profitability of Sakae Holdings Company is poor in comparison to Soup Restaurant. Moreover, ratio analysis also explained that gearing ratios and asset efficiency ratios of Sakae holdings is negative in comparison to Soup Restaurant that signifies the company needs increased improvement in these ratios. For improvement of the profitability ratios, Sakae Holdings Ltd is recommended to decrease its inventory, boost conversion rate and review its recent pricing structure. However, the investors are recommended to invest in the shares of the Soup Restaurant due to positive returns on investment, greater profit margin and higher dividend payouts. Reflection Through carrying out the comparative ratio analysis of the selected companies, I have carried out comparative summary for two years regarding the selected companies profitability, liquidity, asset efficiency and gearing will be provided within the report. Moreover, through completing this paper I have learned that profitability ratios can be efficiently used in evaluating the companys performance along with operational efficiency. I have learned that these ratios indicate the association among the profit along with resources used within the business. From analysing the ratios of the selected companies I have learned that ratio analysis is an effective process of determining along with analysing the numerical relationships relied on the financial statements. I have also learned that ratio analysis serves as a statistical yardstick which offers a measure of association among two figures and variables. After completion of the report, I have attained a great understanding on the fact tha t ratio analysis provides decision makers with increased information and facilities superior quality decision making. This also facilitates directors, managers along with other interested members in deciding important figures such as turnover and profit. After analysing the ratios of the selected companies, I have gathered knowledge regarding the fact that liquidity serves as a measure of a companys capability to address daily expenditure. I have also gathered an understanding regarding the fact that the companies require holding liquid assets in order to make sure that it can address their financial commitments to an extent as liquid assets has a tendency to gather low returns. I have also gained knowledge on the fact that financial statement analysis must centre majorly on extracting necessary information for a specific decision. Such information needed can take several forms that encompass comparisons like comparing variations within similar item for same organization over severa l years. This can facilitate in comparing changes for the similar items for the same organization over several years for comparing major relationships within the identical year. I have also realised that ratio analysis of the companies facilitates comparison of financial performance of them along with facilitating calculation of different ratios for a broad variety of purposes. References Almamy, J., Aston, J., Ngwa, L. N. (2016). An evaluation of Altman's Z-score using cash flow ratio to predict corporate failure amid the recent financial crisis: Evidence from the UK.Journal of Corporate Finance,36, 278-285. Altman, E. I., Iwanicz?Drozdowska, M., Laitinen, E. K., Suvas, A. (2017). Financial Distress Prediction in an International Context: A Review and Empirical Analysis of Altman's Z?Score Model.Journal of International Financial Management Accounting,28(2), 131-171. Baos-Caballero, S., Garca-Teruel, P. J., Martnez-Solano, P. (2014). Working capital management, corporate performance, and financial constraints.Journal of Business Research,67(3), 332-338. Bansal, R. (2014). A Comparative Analysis of the Financial Ratio of Selected Banks in the India for the period of 2011-2014.Research Journal of Finance and Accounting,5, 153-167. Bourguignon, F., Branson, W. H., De Melo, J. (2015). Adjustment and income distribution: A micro-macro model for counterfactual analysis. InModeling Developing Countries' Policies in General Equilibrium(pp. 117-139). Buehlmaier, M. M., Whited, T. M. (2016). Are financial constraints priced? Evidence from textual analysis. Collier, P.M.(2015).Accounting for managers: Interpreting accounting information for decision making. John Wiley Sons. Damodaran, A. (2016).Damodaran on valuation: security analysis for investment and corporate finance(Vol. 324). John Wiley Sons. Dokas, I., Giokas, D. Tsamis, A.(2014). Liquidity efficiency in the Greek listed firms: a financial ratio based on data envelopment analysis.International Journal of Corporate Finance and Accounting (IJCFA),1(1), 40-59. Goldmann, K. (2017). Financial Liquidity and Profitability Management in Practice of Polish Business. InFinancial Environment and Business Development(pp. 103-112). Springer International Publishing. Grinblatt, M. Titman, S.(2016).Financial markets corporate strategy. Hotchkiss, E.S., Strmberg, P. Smith, D.C.(2014). Private equity and the resolution of financial distress. Kou, G., Peng, Y., Wang, G. (2014). Evaluation of clustering algorithms for financial risk analysis using MCDM methods.Information Sciences,275, 1-12. Lakshmi, T.M., Martin, A. Venkatesan, V.P.(2016). A genetic bankrupt ratio analysis tool using a genetic algorithm to identify influencing financial ratios.IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation,20(1), 38-51. Leary, M.T. Roberts, M.R.(2014). Do peer firms affect corporate financial policy?.The Journal of Finance,69(1), 139-178. Li, X. (2015). Accounting conservatism and the cost of capital: An international analysis.Journal of Business Finance Accounting,42(5-6), 555-582. Richardson, G., Lanis, R., Taylor, G. (2015). Financial distress, outside directors and corporate tax aggressiveness spanning the global financial crisis: An empirical analysis.Journal of Banking Finance,52, 112-129. Rudolph, M. (2016). A Financial Analysis of the Sportswear Company Adidas AG. Sakae Holdings Annual Report 2017. (2018).Info.Sakae Holdings.com. Retrieved 11 January 2018, from https://info.Sakae Holdings.com/annualreport/2017/ Soup Restaurant - Investor Relations. (2018).Ir.Soup Restaurant .com. Retrieved 11 January 2018, from https://ir.Soup Restaurant .com/Investors/?page=Annual-Reports

The Evolution of the Boundaryless Career Concept Examining Physical and Psychological Mobility free essay sample

Abstract Although there has been increased interest in the boundaryless career since the publication of Arthur and Rousseau’s book (1996), there is still some misunderstanding about what the concept means. This article examines the boundaryless career and presents a model that attempts to visually capture Arthur and Rousseau’s suggestion that the concept involves six underlying meanings. Rather than considering whether or not an individual has a boundaryless career, the model focuses on the degree of mobility reXected in a career along two continua: one psychological, one physical. Based on the model, we suggest Wve propositions and a series of directions for future research.  © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Career; Boundaryless; Protean; Women; Transitions; Mobility; Gender 1. Introduction There have been calls for greater clarity of terms and further conceptualization of the boundaryless career (e. g. , Inkson, 2002; Pringle Mallon, 2003; Sullivan, 1999) and its distinction from the concept of the protean career (Briscoe, Hall, DeMuth, 2006; Hall, 1996; Hall, Briscoe, Kram, 1997). We will write a custom essay sample on The Evolution of the Boundaryless Career Concept: Examining Physical and Psychological Mobility or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some authors have considered the boundaryless career Thanks to Jon Briscoe, Madeline Crocitto, Tim Hall, Kerr Inkson, Sally Power, and two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript. * Corresponding author. Fax: +1 419 372 6057. E-mail addresses: [emailprotected] bgsu. edu (S. E. Sullivan), [emailprotected] edu (M. B. Arthur). 1 Fax: +1 617 994 4260. 0001-8791/$ see front matter  © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. jvb. 2005. 09. 001 20 S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 s involving only physical changes in work arrangements. In contrast, other authors have considered the protean career concept as involving only psychological changes. However, this separation between physical (or objective) career changes and psychological (or subjective) career changes neglects the interdependence between the physical and psychological career worlds. The result is a body of work that lacks applicability for the individual, who needs to take both physical and psychological issues into account. Similarly, it lacks applicability for the practicing manager or career counselor who seeks to support the individual. While recent research has begun to recognize the links between physical and psychological career changes (e. g. , Marler, Barringer, Milkovich, 2002; Peiperl, Arthur, GoVee, Morris, 2000; Valcour Tolbert, 2003), there still remain rich opportunities for further research. In this article, we seek to stimulate new research by focusing on two questions. First, how can we further clarify and elaborate on the meaning of the boundaryless career? Second, how can we better explore the possible interaction of mobility across (a) physical and (b) psychological boundaries? We begin by examining Arthur and Rousseau’s (1996) deWnition of the boundaryless career as well as its subsequent interpretation and application. Next, we present a model to better illustrate the physical and psychological aspects of boundaryless careers. Using this model as a basis, we explore how career competencies, gender, culture, and individual diVerences inXuence individuals’ opportunities for physical and psychological mobility. Finally, we discuss the implications of these ideas for both practice and future research. 2. Mobility across physical and psychological boundaries Arthur and Rousseau’s 1996 book, The Boundaryless Career, encouraged researchers to rethink their ideas of what a career entails, and raised a number of new questions and lines of inquiry. In the book they detailed six diVerent meanings of boundaryless careers, involving careers: (1) like the stereotypical Silicon Valley career, that move across the boundaries of separate employers; (2) like those of academics or carpenters, that draw validation—and marketability— from outside the present employer; (3) like those of eal-estate agents, that are sustained by external networks or information; (4) that break traditional organizational assumptions about hierarchy and career advancement; (5) that involve an individual rejecting existing career opportunities for personal or family reasons; and (6) that are based on the interpretation of the career actor, who may perceive a boundaryless future regardless of structural constraints. Arthur and Rousseau (1996, p. 6) also stated that a common factor in all these deWnitions was â€Å"? ne of independence from, rather than dependence on, traditional organizational career arrangements. † However, it has subsequently been noted that there can be mobility across other kinds of boundaries—for example, occupational or cultural boundaries—which may also contribute to what we interpret to be boundaryless careers (Gunz, Evans, Jalland, 2000; Inkson, this issue; Sullivan Mainiero, 2000). S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 21 Since the publication of Arthur and Rousseau’s book, a number of researchers have focused on physical mobility across boundaries invoked by meanings 1 and 4. However, relatively few researchers have examined mobility across, or changes to, psychological boundaries described in meanings 2, 3, 5, and 6. For example, Sullivan’s (1999) review of the empirical careers literature found that sixteen studies examined the crossing of physical boundaries (e. g. , between occupations, Wrms, levels) whereas only three studies focused relationships across those boundaries. More recently, Arthur, Khapova, and Wilderom (2005) 11-year review of career success research reported that few of the 80 articles examined, conceptualized or operationalized success in ways that could add to our understanding of boundaryless careers. Only one-third of the articles recognized any two-way interdependence between objective and subjective career success, while a much lower fraction acknowledged the inXuence of either inter-organizational mobility or extra-organizational support on career success. Thus, scholars have emphasized physical mobility across boundaries at the cost of neglecting psychological mobility and its relationship to physical mobility. The possible reasons for this emphasis on physical mobility may be twofold. First, although there are two types of mobility—the physical, which is the transition across boundaries and the psychological, which is the perception of the capacity to make transitions—researchers appear to have viewed boundaryless careers as the Wrst type. They have focused on physical mobility between jobs, employers or industries. Researchers have been less interested in the second type of mobility, and in particular the perceived capacity for change that underlies Arthur and Rousseau’s (1996, p. 6) meaning 6, â€Å"? the interpretation of the career actor, who may perceive a boundaryless future regardless of structural constraints. † Second, researchers may Wnd it easier to measure physical mobility (e. g. , counting the number of times someone changed jobs, employers or occupations) than to measure perceptions about psychological mobility. It is perhaps not surprising that most studies have operationalized boundaryless careers in terms of physical mobility. Because of the emphasis on physical mobility, the versatility of the boundaryless career concept is not always acknowledged. Recognizing this versatility suggests that future conceptual and empirical research needs to question the potential diVerence between boundaryless careers characterized primarily by physical mobility (that is, actual movement between jobs, Wrms, occupations, and countries) versus boundaryless careers characterized primarily by psychological mobility (that is, the capacity to move as seen through the mind of the career actor). Moreover, as previously noted, it is relatively easy to measure physical mobility, but it is more diYcult to measure psychological mobility (see Briscoe et al. , 2006). For example, how could the complexities of the psychological mobility in the following situations be measured? John2 once saw himself as a manager seeking advancement within his present company (a traditional organizational career). Now at midlife, he has refused further promotions to spend more time with his children (Arthur and Rousseau’s meaning 5), accepting instead lateral transfers that permit reXective, on-the-job learning (Arthur and Rousseau’s meaning 4). Each of the examples given is based upon an individual the authors have encountered through other research or consulting projects. All names have been disguised. 2 22 S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 Suzanne is a middle manager seen by others as plateaued in her present organization. However, she anticipates a boundaryless future because she sees her skills as marketable (Arthur and Rousseau’s meaning 6). She has not yet crossed physical boundaries between organizations or occupations, but intends to do so. In addition to measuring complex physical and psychological mobility, how can career changes that represent varying combinations of physical and psychological mobility, and the interdependency between them be measured? Consider the following example: Cindy happily viewed herself as company accountant until she grew bored with her job. She turned to her professional association for validation of her abilities (Arthur and Rousseau’s meaning 2). This led to new opportunities to provide accounting services that she is now pursuing through a small home-based business. Freed from the constraints her employer once placed on her, she now has a substantial support system outside that employer (Arthur and Rousseau’s meaning 3). 3. A model of boundaryless careers The growing complexity of the contemporary career landscape, as well as the many inter-connected factors that can inXuence career decisions, make it increasingly challenging for researchers to capture diVerent types of boundaryless career mobility. To respond to this challenge, we suggest a deWnition of a boundaryless career as one that involves physical and/or psychological career mobility. Such a career can be then viewed as characterized by varying levels of physical and psychological mobility. Thus, boundaryless careers can be represented by the model depicted in Fig. 1, with physical High Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 Psychological Mobility Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Low Low High Physical Mobility Fig. 1. Two dimensions of boundaryless careers. S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 23 mobility along the horizontal continuum and psychological mobility along the vertical continuum. According to the model, having a boundaryless career is not an â€Å"either or† proposition as suggested by some studies. Rather, a boundaryless career can be viewed and operationalized by the degree of mobility exhibited by the career actor along both the physical and psychological continua. Both physical and psychological mobility—and the interdependence between them—can thereby be recognized and subsequently measured. To facilitate discussion of the model, we focus on four â€Å"pure types† of careers, with these four types reXecting the four diVerent quadrants, as follows. 3. 1. Quadrant 1 Careers in this quadrant exhibit low levels of both physical and psychological mobility. In some circumstances this kind of career can appeal to both parties to an employment contract. Consider Alex, a long-tenured NASA engineer. Despite having an advanced education, his highly specialized knowledge may have low transferability because NASA is the only employer requiring this knowledge. Moreover, enjoying the job security and unique challenges of the job, he may have little desire to change employers. Both physical and psychological boundaries are likely to remain. However, unlike the career of the NASA engineer, other careers in this quadrant may not be so enduring. Consider Vicki who works in a bank and has a social life that relies heavily on her fellow workers. Mergers and acquisitions in the industry may not only threaten the stability of her social life, but also the opportunities for her Wnding similar employment elsewhere. Likewise, those lacking basic skills and training, as well as the chronically unemployed, may also have careers in this quadrant. 3. 2. Quadrant 2 Careers in this quadrant have high evels of physical mobility but low levels of psychological mobility. For instance, Colin, a young person bent on seeing the world, may oVer his skills as a waiter or bartender in a series of temporary jobs that provide the opportunity to travel. Helen, a schoolteacher, may change jobs at short notice to follow the geographically mobile career of her partner, but may not seek any psychological beneWt from such a job change. The common facto r in such careers is that they cross physical boundaries but psychological boundaries remain as they were. Some careers in this quadrant may become dysfunctional as they unfold. Consider Peter, a computer programmer seeking to maximize income by applying his existing programming skills. Those skills may remain in demand for some time, but only because programmers willing to work on older systems are in limited supply. As the number of these systems dwindles, Peter may Wnd fewer and fewer opportunities for further employment. 3. 3. Quadrant 3 Careers in this quadrant have low levels of physical mobility but high levels of psychological mobility. Individuals with these types of careers recognize and act on the potential for psychological career mobility. They sustain high expectations of their own employability—for example, as respected academics, experienced management consultants 24 S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 or skilled nurses—without changing employers. Other kinds of psychological mobility can occur when individuals seek personal growth outside the workplace (e. g. , by taking adult education classes or doing volunteer work), or by introducing new ideas into the workplace. However, psychological mobility can also cause problems. Sarah, a research chemist, felt psychologically boundaryless because of her conWdence in her own ability. Then Sarah’s employer assigned her work unrelated to her research specialization, making her unattractive to potential employers. Sarah’s extreme conWdence in her own abilities caused her to lose touch with developments in her Weld, making it diYcult for her to Wnd a more psychologically meaningful work situation. Similarly, Bob has advanced occupational skills but low emotional intelligence. Although he sustains a sense of psychological mobility, he fails to act on feedback to improve his interpersonal skills, and is unable to earn promotions or gain employment with other organizations. . 4. Quadrant 4 Careers in this quadrant exhibit both psychological and physical mobility. In these careers, individuals may make many physical changes (e. g. , changing jobs often), while also changing their psychological career orientation on a regular basis. One example might be Karl, a chef, who works for several diVerent restaurants. Each new job contributes to a larger body of exp ertise and self-conWdence, inside and outside the kitchen, that leads to the opening of his own restaurant. Another example might be Eileen, a self-employed management consultant, who seeks a variety of industry experiences before building the selfassurance to go into line management. Other careers in this quadrant may make sense only to the person. That is, the person’s subjective sense of career success may diVer from the expectations of employers, family, and friends, or society at large. Individuals may â€Å"get oV the fast track† to pursue less demanding work schedules that permit self-reXection and renewal. Spouses may work unattractive hours or accept lower paying positions if these complement their partners’ hours (e. g. one works days, the other nights, so that one of them is always home with preschool children or elderly dependents). Compulsive learners may make a series of lateral moves to experience diVerent roles through the world of work. In sum, the model depicted in Fig. 1 illustrates a range of combinations of psychological and physical mobility that can occur during the course of a career. Why, though, do some careers exhibit greater levels of physical and psychological mobility than others? 4. Some research propositions In this section, we suggest a number of research propositions based on the model previously described. These propositions cover diVerences in individuals’ career competencies, gender, culture, and individual characteristics. They are oVered as illustrative of a much larger body of research topics that might be pursued. 4. 1. Boundaryless careers and career competencies Two individuals may be in the same line of work, the same organization and the same industry but have very diVerent levels of physical and psychological mobility because of S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 25 their diVerent career competencies. Career competencies have been described to reXect three diVerent â€Å"ways of knowing† that can be applied and adapted to shifting career opportunities (DeFillippi Arthur, 1996). The three ways of knowing involve an individual’s motivation and identity (knowing-why), skills and expertise (knowing-how) and relationships and reputation (knowing-whom). Knowing-why competencies underlie the overall energy and identiWcation a person may bring to the tasks, projects, and employment cultures that he/she faces. Knowing-how competencies relate to the skills and knowledge, including tacit knowledge, needed for task or job performance. Knowing-whom competencies refer to relationships with colleagues, professional associations, and friends that provide needed visibility, access to new opportunity, and sources of information. The three ways of knowing are also interdependent. For example, when knowing-why motivation to gain fresh experience stimulates a search for new knowing-how job challenges that in turn bring about new knowing-whom connections. In this way, the accumulation of new career competencies in any of the three ways of knowing can trigger the pursuit of further competencies in the other two. The eVect of the accumulation of career competencies upon the boundaryless career has recently been examined by Eby, Butts, and Lockwood (2003). They found that those with greater levels of knowing-why competencies (proactive personality, openness to experience, and career insight), knowing-how competencies (career/job-related skills, career identity), and knowing-whom competencies (mentor, internal networks, and external networks) reported greater levels of perceived career success and internal and external marketability. Career theory and evidence therefore suggests: Proposition 1. Those with greater career competencies are more likely to have experienced more, and have more opportunities for, psychological and physical mobility than those with lower career competencies. Previous research (e. g. , Schein, 1978; Sullivan, Martin, Carden, Mainiero, 2004) suggests that as individuals gain experience and maturity, unless they are faced with a crisis, they make incremental career changes. In the circumstances of a job loss, a person may be obliged o take on both physical and psychological mobility at the same time. However, in other circumstances, the unfolding of physical and psychological mobility may be sequential rather than simultaneous. Someone in Quadrant 1 would be more likely to switch to psychological mobility (Quadrant 3) if Wrst persuaded, perhaps through career coaching sessions, that his/her skills were transferable. Once established in Quadrant 3, the person may subsequently seek and Wnd a new employer that takes better advantage of those skills. Proposition 2. Individuals, through enhancing career competencies, are more likely to increase their opportunities for either psychological or physical mobility than to increase both simultaneously. 4. 2. Gender Research indicates that men and women are likely to enact their careers diVerently because of social and psychological gender diVerences (Mainiero, 1994a, 1994b; Mainiero Sullivan, 2006; Powell Mainiero, 1992). Societal norms and expectations have often restricted women’s educational, occupational, and job choices (Powell, 1993, 1999). Research 26 S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 has found gender diVerences in relation to work/nonwork balance, mentoring, work outcomes (such as promotions, stress, and career satisfaction), work policies, and sexual harassment and discrimination (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, Brinley, 2005; Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb, Corrigall, 2000; Nelson, 2000; Parasuraman Greenhaus, 1997). Women, in general, may have less freedom than men to engage in physical mobility. For instance, a woman may reject an opportunity than requires relocation or increased travel because her husband may be unable or unwilling to move, she is caring for an ill dependant, or there is a lack of quality childcare in the new locale. Similarly, men in general may have less freedom than women to engage in psychological mobility because social expectations may oblige them to conform to traditional work roles or to provide for their families (Mainiero Sullivan, 2005). Proposition 3. Men are more likely to have greater opportunities for physical mobility whereas women are more likely to have reater opportunities for psychological mobility. 4. 3. Cultural diVerences Cultural diVerences may also inXuence psychological and physical mobility. Hofstede (1980, 1984) has suggested that individualism-collectivism is a bipolar variable that diVerentiates cultures. Individualist cultures emphasize personal goals and equity-based rewards, social networking, and promotions. Collectivist c ultures emphasize group goals and rewards as well as job security. In collectivist cultures the individual is more likely to look to the existing group or organization for evidence of career success. Proposition 4. People in individualistic cultures are more likely to change work groups or organizations, and to exhibit physical mobility; in contrast, people in collectivist cultures are more likely to stay in their work groups or organizations, and to exhibit psychological mobility. 4. 4. Individual diVerences Ramamoorthy and Carroll (1998) have argued that the individualism-collectivism construct may also distinguish individual orientations. Thus, individuals with an individualistic orientation will prefer individually based human resource management systems (e. . , individual incentive schemes, merit-based hiring, and promotion) whereas individuals with collectivist orientations will prefer group-based human resource management systems (e. g. , jobs designed around group functions, group incentives). Proposition 5. People with individual orientations are more likely to recognize opportunities for and exhibit physical mobility; in contrast, people with collectivist orientations a re more likely to recognize opportunities for and exhibit psychological mobility 5. A future research agenda The Wve propositions we have presented illustrate some possible avenues for future research and may be extended to include other variables. In this section, we suggest that the boundaryless career concept can encourage an even larger research program, and detail three aspects of this agenda. S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 27 5. 1. Building upon the Wve propositions Propositions 1–5 may be extended to include propositions involving other independent variables, or other ombinations of variables, that space preclude us from discussing here. For example, beyond the extent of a person’s overall career competencies (Propositions 1 and 2) lay a number of questions about particular combinations of those competencies. A person with a high (knowing-why) need for security and a weak (knowing-whom) occupational network may be expected to be low on psychological mobility even if that person has strong and highly transferable (knowing-how) occupational skills. Further demographic variables, such as race, age, and socio-economic status may be anticipated to interact with gender (Proposition 3). Hypotheses about diVerences between national cultures (Proposition 4) may be reWned to also cover the organizational and/or occupational cultures in which a career is situated. Further demographic factors, such as race, age, and diVerences between generations (Proposition 3), and personality variables, such as the â€Å"big Wve† personality dimensions (Proposition 5), could also be examined. . 2. Going beyond organizational career samples Much previous research, especially concerning managerial careers, has been limited to a single organizational setting, thereby preventing the examination of boundaryless career phenomena (Arthur, Khapova, Wilderom, 2005; Sullivan, 1999). An instructive example based on an alternative sampling strategy is that of Eby and associates (2003). They studied 458 university alumni representing a range of diVerent or ganizations, occupations, industries, and employment situations. Similar to Eby and associates, Mainiero and Sullivan (2005) captured a variety of diVerent employment experiences, industries, and occupations. They used a multi-source approach, including the collection of data via: (a) an email survey of over 100 high achieving women belonging to a national association of female professionals; (b) an on-line survey of over 1000 men and women; and (c) a series of indepth online â€Å"conversations† with 27 men and women about their careers. By using both quantitative and qualitative methods, Mainiero and Sullivan’s study illustrates a strategy for obtaining richer information about individuals’ physical and psychological mobility. 5. 3. Using action research The boundaryless career model suggested by this article could be used as the foundation for action research. Initial diagnostic work could determine which area of the model best reXects a person’s career situation. Next, a series of interventions could be designed to assist each person’s transition between adjacent quadrants. Such passages could help individuals experiment with greater degrees of physical and psychological mobility—thereby potentially increasing the number of options in each individual’s future career. A series of research measures could be applied during the process to test the utility of the interventions used. This kind of action research design may help both individuals and their present employers to adapt existing employment arrangements to the uncertainties of the contemporary knowledge-driven economy. Similarly, such action research models may help scholars develop much needed measures of psychological mobility. The use of action research could be combined with eVorts to increase managerial eVectiveness. For instance, in the contemporary career world it is considered important for 28 S. E. Sullivan, M. B. Arthur / Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006) 19–29 managers to hold â€Å"eVective career discussions† with their employees (Kidd, Hirsh, Jackson, 2004). These discussions are considered to help individuals to develop more accurate and more nuanced pictures of their career situations, including the situation inside the current organization. In less routine situations, such as downsizing or moving jobs oVshore, there is a greater sense of urgency in such exchanges. Although all employees will be aVected by such changes, individual reactions to the prospect of either physical and/or psychological mobility will vary. By using the model detailed in this article to anticipate and respond to these diVerent reactions, managers may be better able to assist their employees. Likewise, researchers observing these career discussions as they happen may gain a greater understanding of how careers unfold. In conclusion, the concept of the boundaryless career can be clariWed by viewing mobility as measured along two continua, one physical, one psychological. This portrayal of the boundaryless career invites scholars to bring greater precision to research endeavors concerned with such variables as career competencies, gender, culture, and individual diVerences. It also invites scholars to use a variety of data collection and research designs, including scholars partnering with managers to use action research to assist employees in their quest for more satisfactory careers. Attention to this future career research agenda should bring greater insights into today’s complex careers. References Arthur, M. B. , Khapova, S. N. , Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career success in a boundaryless career world. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(2), 177–202. Arthur, M. B. , Rousseau, D. M. (Eds. ). (1996). The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era. 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